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Post by skyship on Jun 16, 2010 15:34:52 GMT -5
Well, the saga continues.
I do not know what bug bit me, not determined.
However, after a kindly dermatologist visit, I received the diagnosis of pseudovesicles and contact dermatitis, but no parasite involvement, unless the skin scrape shows something.
Hand is red around edges with extreme itchings and where has healed in center has formed pseudovesicles.
Now, the leg is another matter. still swollen and moving down to side of calf.
The cane is getting a good workout.
So far, no blood test taken.
This began in April, so onto 3rd month, takes about 4 months for skin to heal in Morgies lesion, so will see how close this is.
Psuedovesicles: Leprosy link?------------------------------------------------ www.bioline.org.br/showimage?dv/photo/dv06009f1.jpgwww.bioline.org.br/request?dv06009--------------------------------------------- Rare variants of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: Whitlow, paronychia, and sporotrichoid Nadia Iftikhar, FCPS, MRCP , Irfan Bari, FCPS , and Amer Ejaz, MCPS From the Department of Dermatology, Military Hospital, Rawalpindi, Pakistan Correspondence to Dr Nadia Iftikhar 1 Race Course Road Westridge Rawalpindi Pakistan E-mail: nadia@marriala.net Authorship statement: All persons who met the authorship criteria are listed as authors, and all the authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the concept, design analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript. Furthermore, each author certifies that this material or similar material has not been nor will be submitted to, or published in, any other publication before its appearance in the International Journal of Dermatology. This study has not been presented at a national meeting. Copyright © 2003 The International Society of Dermatology ABSTRACT Cutaneous Leishmaniasis is endemic in certain areas of Pakistan, with the wet form of the disease being the most prevalent. It has a number of morphological variants, which are dependant on the immune status of the host, the subspecies of the Leishmania, and also, to some extent, on the site of involvement. We describe here a case of Leishmaniasis showing two very rare variants, whitlow and paronychial lesions, occurring concurrently with sporotrichoid spread. The patient responded to intramuscular sodium stibogluconate with resolution of the skin lesions. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118829362/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 16, 2010 15:41:38 GMT -5
Whitlow, paronychia, and sporotrichoidMany faces of cutaneous leishmaniasis"Abstract Background: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is known for its clinical diversity and increasing numbers of new and rare variants of the disease are being reported these days. Aim: The aim of this descriptive study was to look for and report the atypical presentations of this common disease occurring in Pakistan. Methods: The study was carried out in three hospitals (MH, Rawalpindi; PAF Hospital, Sargodha; and CMH, Muzaffarabad) from 2002 to 2006. Military and civilian patients of all ages, both males and females, belonging to central and north Punjab province and Kashmir were included in the study. Clinical as well as parasitological features of cutaneous leishmaniasis were studied. The unusual lesions were photographed and categorized accordingly using simple descriptive statistics. Results: Out of 718 patients of cutaneous leishmaniasis, 41 (5.7%) had unusual presentations. The commonest among unusual morphologies was lupoid leishmaniasis 14 (34.1%), followed by sporotrichoid 5 (12.1%), paronychial 3 (7.3%), lid leishmaniasis 2 (4.9%), psoriasiform 2 (4.9%), mycetoma-like 2 (4.9%), erysipeloid 2 (4.9%), chancriform 2 (4.9%), whitlow 1 (2.4%), scar leishmaniasis 1 (2.4%), DLE-like 1 (2.4%), 'squamous cell carcinoma'-like 1 (2.4%), zosteriform 1 (2.4%), eczematous 1 (2.4%), verrucous 1 (2.4%), palmar/plantar 1 (2.4%) and mucocutaneous 1 (2.4%). Conclusion: In Pakistan, an endemic country for CL, the possibility of CL should be kept in mind while diagnosing common dermatological diseases like erysipelas, chronic eczema, herpes zoster, paronychia; and uncommon disorders like lupus vulgaris, squamous cell carcinoma, sporotrichosis, mycetoma and other deep mycoses.Keywords: Atypical leishmaniasis, Cutaneous leishmaniasis, Unusual leishmaniasis " www.ijdvl.com/article.asp?issn=0378-6323;year=2008;volume=74;issue=1;spage=23;epage=27;aulast=Bariskyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 16, 2010 16:16:49 GMT -5
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Post by skyship on Jun 16, 2010 23:07:57 GMT -5
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 15:40:27 GMT -5
No bacteria showed up in culture on my specimens.
But, this could be the 0ncho itself.
Otherwise pseudovesicles as shown and described by Mark Darrah, could be created from the Protista, multispecies.============== Fungi©\Like Protista Slime moldsThe Kingdom Protista was established in the 1860s as a place for the slime molds that are plant-like in forming spores in multinucleate, erect, sporangia and having cellulose in their cell walls, animal-like in having an amoeboid stage in their life cycle during which they creep about ingesting their food, and fungal-like in general appearance and habits.Like fungi these slime molds grow in damp, organic-rich sites. Rotting logs or decaying plants on the forest floor are favorite habitats. Their amoeboid form is frequently a brightly colored orange or yellow blob of viscous, slippery protoplasm that streams slowly into a network of branching, anastomosing projections that move the whole mass forward. This is the feeding stage and bacteria, yeasts, fungi, or bits of vegetation are incorporated into the mass as it moves. Two principal groups of slime molds are recognized, with a third unrelated group closely associated: * Dictyosteliomycota form a motile mass of protoplasm¡ªa ¡°slug¡±¡ªby aggregating individual amoeboid cells that retain their identity in the slug, hence their common name, cellular slime molds. * Myxomycota, the plasmodial slime molds, lose their cell membranes when they come together and the nuclei float freely in the combined, membrane bound mass of cytoplasm, which is called a plasmodium. (The slug of the Dictyostelio-mycota is a false plasmodium or a pseudoplasmodium.) * Labyrinthulomycota, the slime nets, are basically unicellular, but live together in colonies. They secrete a membrane outside of their cells, which forms a network of filaments through which the cells travel. The net, sometimes several centimeters in diameter, resembles the plasmodium of the slime molds, but if examined microscopically the cells in their tracks can be seen as distinctively different. The three groups are neither related to the fungi nor to each other, but they have in common heterotrophy and a sporangia form in their life cycle.The myxomycetes are reproductively more advanced than the cellular slime molds and form a true plasmodium that can be several centimeters in diameter and look to the untrained eye like a patch of yellow vomitus spewed over a decaying log on the forest floor. Both asexual and sexual reproduction occurs, but the initiation clues to each process remain obscure. Under some conditions, the plasmodium produces erect sporangiophores with sporangia on their tips. Meiosis takes place and haploid spores result. Like the sclerotia, the spores are resistant and able to sustain the slime mold over adverse growth periods. . Another distinctive group, The slime molds represent three stages in development towards multicellularity: a single, coenocytic mass of protoplasm; a mass of protoplasm in which separate cells float; and a third mass of protoplasm in which the cells are enclosed and move in membranous structures. All of these are able to come together and function in a mass that resembles a multicellular organism.Read more: www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/FungiLike-Protista.topicArticleId-23791,articleId-23756.html#ixzz0rWRbZ0rs www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/FungiLike-Protista.topicArticleId-23791,articleId-23756.html ==================== This seems to fit as well.......as shown by Jan Smith.............
Could resemble the oncho in many ways...........
The oomycetes and cellulose is here as well.================== skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 16:00:19 GMT -5
Now, are these also called pseudovesicles or psuedoplasmodium?The axial distribution of plasma membrane molecules in pseudoplasmodia of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum*1Christopher M. West1 and Daniel McMahon Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA Received 19 April 1979; accepted 18 May 1979. Available online 23 November 2004. Abstract The distribution of these molecules corresponded with the pattern of precursors of the terminally differentiated stalk cells and spores before these cells became irreversibly committed to their respective fates. At least four of the molecules appeared in hemispherical aggregates prior to the detection of prestalk or prespore cells, but were not present in undifferentiated vegetative cells.tinyurl.com/2cf*gwt================== Development of the simple cellular slime mold Dictyostelium minutumPauline Schaap, Loek van der Molen and Theo M. Konijn Cell Biology and Morphogenesis Unit, Zoological Laboratory, University of Leiden, The Netherlands Received 15 August 1980; accepted 8 December 1980. Available online 08 December 2004. Abstract tinyurl.com/2ff969s=================== Interesting...................the sign of the Beast?---------------------------------- The term acrasin was descriptively named after Acrasia from Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene[4], who seduced men against their will and then transformed them into beasts. Acrasia is itself a play on the Greek akrasia that describes loss of free will.Notes 1. ^ Evidence for the formation of cell aggregates by chemotaxis in the development of the slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum - J.T.Bonner and L.J.Savage Journal of Experimental Biology Vol. 106, pp. 1, October (1947) Cell Biology 2. ^ Aggregation in cellular slime moulds: in vitro isolation of acrasin - B.M.Shaffer Nature Vol. 79, pp. 975, (1953) Cell Biology 3. ^ Identification of a pterin as the acrasin of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium lacteum - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA Vol. 79, pp. 6270-6274, October ( 1982) Cell Biology 4. ^ Hunting Slime Moulds - Adele Conover, Smithsonian Magazine Online (2001)---------------------- Letters to NatureNature 171, 975 (30 May 1953); doi:10.1038/171975a0 Aggregation in Cellular Slime Moulds: in vitro Isolation of AcrasinB. M. SHAFFER Department of Zoology, University, Cambridge. Communication between the centres and the reacting cells is through the external medium. Bonner2 produced indirect evidence that a chemical diffused outwards from the centres, setting up a concentration gradient by which the separate cells oriented themselves; pointing out that isolation in vitro would be the final proof of the chemical's existence, he named it 'acrasin'. 1. Olive, E. W. , Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30, 451 (1902). 2. Bonner, J. T. , J. Exp. Zool., 106, 1 (1947). | Article | ISI | ChemPort | 3. Pfützner-Eckert, R. , Archiv Entwicklungsmechanik, 144, 381 (1950). 4. Raper, K. B. , and Thom, C. , Amer. J. Bot., 28, 69 ( 1941). 5. Sussman, M. , and Noël, E. , Biol. Bull., 103, 259 ( 1952). | ISI | 6. Sussman, M. , Biol. Bull., 103, 446 ( 1952). | ISI | www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4361/abs/171975a0.html========================= well then......................... skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 16:50:41 GMT -5
pterin? Pterin pigment granules are responsible for both broadband light scattering and wavelength selective absorption in the wing scales of pierid butterflies 1. Nathan I Morehouse1*, 2. Peter Vukusic2 and 3. Ron Rutowski1 + Author Affiliations 1. 1School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University Tempe, AZ 85287, USA 2. 2School of Physics, University of Exeter Exeter EX4 4QL, UK 1. Author for correspondence (nmorehouse@asu.edu) Abstract A small but growing literature indicates that many animal colours are produced by combinations of structural and pigmentary mechanisms. We investigated one such complex colour phenotype: the highly chromatic wing colours of pierid butterflies including oranges, yellows and patterns which appear white to the human eye, but strongly absorb the ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths visible to butterflies. Pierids produce these bright colours using wing scales that contain collections of minute granules. However, to date, no work has directly characterized the molecular composition or optical properties of these granules. We present results that indicate these granules contain pterin pigments. We also find that pterin granules increase light reflection from single wing scales, such that wing scales containing denser granule arrays reflect more light than those with less dense granule collections. As male wing scales contain more pterin granules than those of females, the sexual dichromatism found in many pierid species can be explained by differences in wing scale pterin deposition. Additionally, the colour pattern elements produced by these pterins are known to be important during mating interactions in a number of pierid species. Therefore, we discuss the potential relevance of our results within the framework of sexual selection and colour signal evolution. rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1608/359.abstract================ pterin and broadband light,
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pterin?================== Abstract. The molybdenum cofactor (Moco) forms the active site of all molybdenum (Mo) enzymes, except nitrogenase. Mo enzymes catalyze important redox reactions in global metabolic cycles. Moco consists of Mo covalently bound to one or two dithiolates attached to a unique tricyclic pterin moiety commonly referred to as molybdopterin (MPT). Moco is synthesized by an ancient and conserved biosynthetic pathway that can be divided into four steps, according to the biosynthetic intermediates precursor Z (cyclic pyranopterin monophosphate), MPT and adenylated MPT. In a fifth step modifications such as attachment of nucleotides, sulfuration or bond formation between Mo and the protein result in different catalytic Mo centers. A defect in any of the steps of Moco biosynthesis results in the pleiotropic loss of all Mo enzyme activities. Human Moco deficiency is a hereditary metabolic disorder characterized by severe neurodegeneration resulting in early childhood death. Recently, a first substitution therapy was established. Key words. Molybdenum cofactor - molybdopterin - cyclic pyranopterin www.springerlink.com/content/l23m868435225143/===================== I do not know if this relates to the above or the pterin?---------------------------------- Molecular evolution of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: an example of multigene family in excitable cells...." The results show that a first gene duplication may have occurred before the appearance of Bilateria. Three subfamilies then appeared: I-the neuronal a-bungarotoxin binding site subunits (a7, a8), III-the neuronal nicotinic subunits (a2-a6, b2-b4) which also contains the muscle acetylcholine binding subunit (a1), and IV-the muscle non-a subunits (b1, g, d, e). The Insecta subunits (subfamily II) could be orthologous to family III and IV. Several tissular switches of expression from neuron to muscle and the converse can be inferred from the extant expression of subunits and the reconstructed trees. The diversification of the neuronal nicotinic subfamily begins in the stem lineage of chordates, the last duplications occurring shortly before the onset of the mammalian lineage. Such evolution parallels the increase in complexity of the cholinergic systems.key words: ......."Acetylcholine (ACh) has long been recognized as a neurotransmitter active in Bilateria nervous system and muscle. Two distinct categories of receptors are engaged in the biological effects of ACh: the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Muscarinic receptors belong to the super-family of G-protein coupled receptors; they consist of single integral proteins with seven transmembrane segments and interact, on their cytoplasmic face with heterotrimeric G-proteins. Nicotinic receptors (nAChR) belong to the super-family of ligand-gated ion channels; they are hetero-oligomers composed of five subunits, each with four transmembrane domains (Devillers-Thi¨¦ry et al. 1993, Galzi and Changeux 1994). ACh binding causes an ionic channel, most often cationic, to open, resulting in a rapid change in the electrical, and secondarily metabolic, state of the target cell (Greenberg et al. 1986, rev. Bertrand et al. .....". ...." The nAChR is present in the whole phylum of Bilateria, from nematodes to humans (Gershenfeld 1973, Darlison et al. 1993, Fleming et al. 1993, Leech and Sattelle 1993). Several nAChR neuronal subunits have been cloned in Drosophila, locust and nematode (Gundelfinger 1992, Fleming et al. 1993). In the insect nervous system, ACh is the major excitatory neurotransmitter, in contrast to vertebrates, where glutamate predominates. At the neuromuscular junction, glutamate is the excitatory transmitter in arthropods, whereas it is ACh in vertebrates. Since some lines of evidence suggest that nAChR is also responsible for neuromuscular transmission in nematodes, molluscs and annelids (Gershenfeld 1973, Segerberg and Stretton 1993), it is of interest to assess whether the original form of nAChR appeared in muscle or in neurons. ".............www.ebi.ac.uk/compneur-srv/LGICdb/ARTICLES/LENOV1995/Lenov1995.html==================== Use of a Snake Venom Toxin to Characterize the Cholinergic Receptor ProteinChangeux, Jean-Pierre; Kasai, Michiki; Lee, Chen-Yuan Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Volume 67, Issue 3, pp. 1241-1247 ¦ Á -Bungarotoxin, a polypeptide of mol wt 8000 purified from the venom of Bungarus multicinctus, blocks irreversibly and specifically the excitation by cholinergic agonists on the isolated electroplax and on purified membrane fragments in vitro. The toxin also blocks the in vitro binding of decamethonium to a protein recently isolated from electric tissue. This observation strengthens our earlier conclusion that this protein is the cholinergic receptor macromolecule.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970PNAS...67.1241C================= Now we are into the snake venom!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!=================== It is indeed as a consequence of the introduction and the adequate use of highly toxic substances such as several curarelike agents and snake venom ¦Á-toxins (Lee and Chang 1966; Lee 1973; Changeux et al. 1970a; Miledi et al. 1971) that the first receptor for a neurotransmitter, the acetylcholine receptor protein, has been characterized, isolated and purified (for recent reviews, see Karlin 1974; Changeux 1975; Rang 1975).Upon examining the research done during the last ten years... symposium.cshlp.org/content/40/211.extract------------------------------ COLD SPRING HARBOR>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> ------------------ So now, after the RNA splicing is done, their work is cut out for them...How selective.............--------------------- The scientists dubbed the method ESSENCE (which stands for Exon-Specific Splicing Enhancement by small Chimeric Effectors). The next step is to create ESSENCE designer splicing molecules that pass easily into cells and can home-in on the desired splicing targets. The new study establishes that if such molecules can be developed, they may ultimately prove useful for treating a great diversity of human disease.www.cshl.edu/public/releases/press011703.html======================= since 1933?
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Eugenics or Epigenics??
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skyshipThe use of snake venom toxin to characterize the cholinergic receptor protein.
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 17:06:31 GMT -5
cholinergic receptor protein The cholinergic antagonist α-bungarotoxin also binds and blocks a subset of GABA receptors 1. Corey M. McCann*, 2. John Bracamontes†, 3. Joe Henry Steinbach†, and 4. Joshua R. Sanes*,‡ + Author Affiliations 1. *Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138; and 2. †Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 1. Contributed by Joshua R. Sanes, February 2, 2006 Next Section Abstract The polypeptide snake toxin α-bungarotoxin (BTX) has been used in hundreds of studies on the structure, function, and development of the neuromuscular junction because it binds tightly and specifically to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at this synapse. We show here that BTX also binds to and blocks a subset of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) that contain the GABAAR β3 subunit. These results introduce a previously unrecognized tool for analysis of GABAARs but may complicate interpretation of some studies on neuronal nAChRs. * acetylcholine * neurotransmitter * synapse www.pnas.org/content/103/13/5149.full============ Studies on the Cholinergic Receptor Protein of Electrophorus Electricus I. An Assay in Vitro for the Cholinergic Receptor Site and Solubilization of the Receptor Protein from Electric Tissue 1. JEAN-PIERRE CHANGEUX, 2. JEAN-CLAUDE MEUNIER and 3. MONIQUE HUCHET + Author Affiliations 1. Département de Biologie Moléculaire, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France Abstract The binding of 14C-decamethonium to a preparation of the electric organ of Electrophorus electricus has been measured by a method of rapid equilibriunm dialysis. At the ionic strength of Ringer's physiological solution little nonspecific binding of decamethonium occurs. Deoxycholate extraction of membrane fragments yields a preparation which contains two classes of specific decamethonium-binding sites. From one, the ligand is displaced reversibly by d-tubocurarine, gallamine triethiodide (at concentrations lower than 10-5 M), carbamylcholine, and phenyltrimethylammonium, and irreversibly by two snake venom toxins,α -bungarotoxin and Naja nigricollis α-toxin. This class of site is considered to belong to the cholinergic receptor site. From the other, decamethonium is only displaced by carbamylcholine and phenyltrimethylammonium. This second class of site is identified as the catalytic site of acetylcholinesterase. The "intrinsic" binding constants of a variety of cholinergic agents for these two classes of sites are compared with their "apparent" values estimated in vivo on the isolated electroplax and in vitro on excitable membrane fragments. Some agreement exists between the two sets of data. The macromolecule possessing the cholinergic receptor site has a molecular weight larger than 50,000 daltons, is thermolabile, and is digested by Pronase. It is a protein that is easily separated from acetylcholinesterase by selective adsorption on Sepharose granules to which N. nigricollis α-toxin has been coupled. molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/7/5/538.abstractskyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 17:09:20 GMT -5
selective adsorption on Sepharose granules to which N. nigricollis á-toxin has been coupled. Effects of snake venom proteins on blood platelets Purchase the full-text article References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article. R.Manjunatha Kinia and Herbert J. Evansa aDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, U.S.A. Accepted 9 May 1990. Available online 25 November 2002. Abstract R. M. Kini and H. J. Evans. Review article—Effects of snake venom proteins on blood platelets. Toxicon28, 1387–1422, 1990.—Snake venoms are complex mixtures which contain pharmacologically active polypeptides and proteins. Several snake venom constituents interfere in platelet aggregation, an important cellular process in thrombosis and hemostasis. These components range in size from small molecular weight polypeptides to high molecular weight proteins. Some of the proteins are enzymes, such as phospholipase A2, proteinases, nucleotidases, or l-amino acid oxidase, while others do not exhibit enzymatic activity. These components may initiate and/or inhibit platelet aggregation. Some venom factors induce platelet agglutination. This review deals with the physical characteristics of these venom factors, the mechanisms of their platelet effects, structure-function relationships, and their physiological significance. tinyurl.com/28dw8ba============= skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 17:16:54 GMT -5
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 17:48:07 GMT -5
dark photosynthesis mentioned in above link where physics come in? ==== www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookps.html#Dark%20Reactiond"Carbon-Fixing Reactions are also known as the Dark Reactions (or Light Independent Reactions). Carbon dioxide enters single-celled and aquatic autotrophs through no specialized structures, diffusing into the cells. Land plants must guard against drying out (desiccation) and so have evolved specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and leave the leaf. The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts (where would it occur in a prokaryote?). Carbon dioxide is captured by the chemical ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). RuBP is a 5-C chemical. Six molecules of carbon dioxide enter the Calvin Cycle, eventually producing one molecule of glucose. The reactions in this process were worked out by Melvin Calvin "The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3-C chemical. The energy from ATP and NADPH energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to attach phosphates to (phosphorylate) the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known as phosphoglyceraldehyde or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make a glucose. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP energy to reform 6 RuBP molecules, and thus start the cycle again. Remember the complexity of life, each reaction in this process, as in Kreb's Cycle, is catalyzed by a different reaction-specific enzyme." "C-4 photosynthsis involves the separation of carbon fixation and carbohydrate systhesis in space and time. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission"........... ======= www.sinauer.com/---------------- RUBISCO ================ Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, most commonly known by the shorter name RuBisCO,[1] is an enzyme involved in the Calvin cycle, that catalyzes the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which the atoms of atmospheric carbon dioxide are made available to organisms in the form of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. RuBisCO catalyzes either the carboxylation or the oxygenation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (also known as RuBP) with carbon dioxide or oxygen. RuBisCO is very important in terms of biological impact because it catalyzes the primary chemical reaction by which inorganic carbon permanently enters the biosphere. Many autotrophic bacteria and archaea fix carbon via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle or the reverse Krebs cycle, but they make up a relatively minor portion of global net primary production. PEPC only temporarily fixes carbon. RuBisCO is also the most abundant protein in leaves, and is considered to be the most abundant protein on Earth.[2][3] It accounts for 50% of soluble leaf protein in C3 plants (20-30% of total leaf nitrogen) and 30% of soluble leaf protein in C4 plants (5-9% of total leaf nitrogen).[3] Given its important role in the biosphere, there are currently efforts to genetically engineer crop plants so as to contain more efficient RuBisCO (see below //////////// "Structure In plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and phototropic and chemoautotropic proteobacteria, the enzyme usually consists of two types of protein subunit, called the large chain (L, about 55,000 Da) and the small chain (S, about 13,000 Da).[4] There are typically several related small-chain genes in the nucleus of plant cells, and the small chains are imported to the stromal compartment of chloroplasts from the cytosol by crossing the outer chloroplast membrane.[5] [6] The enzymatically active substrate (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) binding sites are located in the large chains that form dimers as shown in Figure 1 (above, right) in which amino acids from each large chain contribute to the binding sites. A total of eight large-chain dimers and eight small chains assemble into a larger complex of about 540,000 Da[7]. In some proteobacteria and dinoflagellates, enzymes consisting of only large subunits have been found [8]." "Enzymatic activity Figure 2. Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation As shown in Figure 2 (left), RuBisCO is one of many enzymes in the Calvin cycle. Substrates. During carbon fixation, the substrate molecules for RuBisCO are ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, carbon dioxide (distinct from the "activating" carbon dioxide).[11] RuBisCO also catalyses a reaction between ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and molecular oxygen (O2) instead of carbon dioxide (CO2). [edit] Products When carbon dioxide is the substrate, the product of the carboxylase reaction is a highly unstable six-carbon phosphorylated intermediate known as 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol-1,5-bisphosphate, which decays virtually instantaneously into two molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate. The extremely unstable molecule created by the initial carboxylation was unknown until 1988 when it was isolated. The 3-phosphoglycerate can be used to produce larger molecules such as glucose. When molecular oxygen is the substrate, the products of the oxygenase reaction are phosphoglycolate and 3-phosphoglycerate. Phosphoglycolate is recycled through a sequence of reactions called photorespiration, which involves enzymes and cytochromes located in the mitochondria and peroxisomes. In this process, two molecules of phosphoglycolate are converted to one molecule of carbon dioxide and one molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate, which can reenter the Calvin cycle. Some of the phosphoglycolate entering this pathway can be retained by plants to produce other molecules such as glycine. At ambient levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen, the ratio of the reactions is about 4 to 1, which results in a net carbon dioxide fixation of only 3.5. Thus the inability of the enzyme to prevent the reaction with oxygen greatly reduces the photosynthetic capacity of many plants. Some plants, many algae, and photosynthetic bacteria have overcome this limitation by devising means to increase the concentration of carbon dioxide around the enzyme, including C4 carbon fixation, crassulacean acid metabolism and using pyrenoid." ========================= all for the frickin GLOBAL WARMING SCHEME.......... ================= "Genetic engineering Since RuBisCO is often rate-limiting for photosynthesis in plants, it may be possible to improve photosynthetic efficiency by modifying RuBisCO genes in plants to increase its catalytic activity and/or decrease the rate of the oxygenation activity.[23] This could improve biosequestration of CO2 and be an important climate change strategy. Approaches that have begun to be investigated include expressing RuBisCO genes from one organism in another organism, increasing the level of expression of RuBisCO subunits, expressing RuBisCO small chains from the chloroplast DNA, and altering RuBisCO genes so as to try to increase specificity for carbon dioxide or otherwise increase the rate of carbon fixation.[24] One particularly interesting avenue is to introduce RuBisCO variants with naturally high specificity values such as the ones from the red alga Galdieria partita into plants. This would be expected to improve the photosynthetic efficiency of crop plants.[25] Important advances in this area include the replacement of the tobacco enzyme with that of the purple photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum.[26]"................. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuBisCO===== purple photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum. ====== ==================== Rhodospirillum rubrum is the type strain for the Rhodospirillaceae and has been, and continues to be, the subject of a substantial amount of physiological and genetic analysis. It is widely distributed and is Gram negative, motile, and spiral shaped. It is capable of growth under a broad variety of conditions, including aerobically and anaerobically, under the latter conditions using fermentation pr photosynthesis for the production of energy. Photoautotrophic growth also occurs. A range of genetic tools have been developed for the use in the organism. Areas of particular research interest have been nitrogen fixation, carbon monoxide oxidation, CO2 fixation, H2 production, the photosystem, and the ATP synthase. The nitrogen fixation system is particularly well described, consisting of both a MoFe and an Fe-only nitrogenase. The system of post-translational regulation of nitrogenase activity is the best-understood example of reversible ADP-ribosylation as a regulatory system in any organism. This system responds to both nitrogen and energy status signals. R. rubrum is able to grow on CO as sole energy source and the CO oxidation system has been extremely well-analyzed genetically and biochemically, largely through DOE support. The structure of the CODH that lies at the heart of this system, together with analyses of its catalytic mechanism, provide a model for more complex CODHs of other organisms. The CO-oxidation regulon also contains a novel CO-sensing protein, CooA, that is becoming a paradigm for gas-sensors and transcriptional regulators. genome.jgi-psf.org/rhoru/rhoru.home.html===================== DOE/EPA genomes to life.............created ............... ============ takes us right back AGAIN to the SNARE proteins.................. ============== The mechanisms of vesicle budding and fusion. Bonifacino JS, Glick BS. Cell Biology and Metabolism Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA. juan@helix.nih.gov Comment on: * Cell. 1980 Aug;21(1):205-15. * Cell. 1984 Dec;39(2 Pt 1):405-16. Abstract Genetic and biochemical analyses of the secretory pathway have produced a detailed picture of the molecular mechanisms involved in selective cargo transport between organelles. This transport occurs by means of vesicular intermediates that bud from a donor compartment and fuse with an acceptor compartment. Vesicle budding and cargo selection are mediated by protein coats, while vesicle targeting and fusion depend on a machinery that includes the SNARE proteins. Precise regulation of these two aspects of vesicular transport ensures efficient cargo transfer while preserving organelle identity. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14744428?dopt=Abstract=============== this is so confusing, but, the rubrum............ is man made by DOE and EPA associat with the chemtrail operations.......... ================== Cell biology. ER-to-Golgi traffic--this bud's for you. Brittle EE, Waters MG. Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA. Abstract How do protein-transporting vesicles, which bud from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), specifically dock to, and fuse with, the Golgi apparatus? In their Perspective, Brittle and Waters discuss new work (Allan et al.) suggesting that some vesicle-associated docking and fusion proteins are "programmed" during vesicle budding from the ER and direct downstream events that occur during fusion of these transport vesicles with the membranes of the Golgi. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10939952skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 18:05:00 GMT -5
Biosynthetic protein transport in the secretory pathway. The present invention provides methods and compositions for the construction of custom cDNA microarrays. In particular, the methods involve the selection of relevant clusters based on knowledge and expression patterns using public database information and the identification of the best representative cDNA clones within the selected cluster. The methods facilitate the construction of custom microarrays suitable for use in any biotechnological art. In preferred embodiments, the present invention provides the the ImmunoChip. www.freepatentsonline.com/6706867.htmlhere............................................ here................ zapped again.......... skyship
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Post by skyship on Jun 21, 2010 18:08:13 GMT -5
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