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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 10:25:59 GMT -5
Well, well......... Microbial Fermentations: Changed The Course Of Human History Microbiology, Synthetic Rubber, and The Making of a Nation The uses for rubber were limited until 1898 when John Dunlop used vulcanized (heated or fireproofed) rubber to make automobile tires. The rest, as they say, is history: By 1918, there were more than nine million cars in the United States and the United States was using 50 percent of the world's rubber production. Already, by around 1900, the growing demand for rubber and the desire by countries to be self-sufficient motivated scientists to develop synthetic rubber. The greatest stimulus for development of synthetic rubber, however, was the blockade of Germany during World War I. Faced with a cutoff of its supply of natural rubber, Germany succeeded in manufacturing synthetic rubber by polymerizing butadiene, which is obtained from petroleum or alcohol. In 1904, Chaim Weizmann was a chemistry professor at Manchester University in England trying to make synthetic rubber. He was looking for a microbe that would produce the necessary butyl alcohol. Weizmann was a Russian-born Jew who was active in the Zionist movement which advocated the creation of a homeland for Jews in Palestine. During his stay in England, he became a leader of the international Zionist movement. By 1914, Weizmann had isolated Clostridium acetobutylicum, a bacterium which used inexpensive starch to produce a high yield of butyl alcohol and acetone. However, World War I broke out in August of 1914 and diverted attention away from synthetic rubber and toward gunpowder (cordite). As it turns out, the solvent for making nitrocellulose and thus cordite was acetone. Weizmann was instrumental in making available a source for the creation of this acetone.Acetone had previously been made from calcium acetate imported from Germany. Since importation of the German calcium acetate was not possible and the United States did not have a large supply, Weizmann was recruited by Winston Churchill and the British government to set up his microbial fermentation for the production of acetone from corn at the Nicholson Distillery in London. The grain supply was unreliable, however, because of the German blockade and it was necessary to look for a different fermentable carbohydrate. Food was being rationed so a substrate that could not be used for human food was needed. In 1916, Weizmann even tried to use horse chestnuts collected by children, but the supply was insufficient for a large-scale fermentation. The British turned to other parts of the British Empire and to their allies for a fermentable carbohydrate. Consequently, in 1916, the Weizmann process was moved to a distillery in Toronto (Canada) and another was built in India. In 1917, a plant was set up to ferment corn in Indiana (U.S.).
After the war, when British Prime Minister Lloyd George asked what honors Weizmann might want for his considerable contributions, Weizmann answered, "There is only one thing I want. A national home for my people." Lord Balfour then gave Weizmann 15 minutes to explain why that national homeland should be Palestine. Weizmann was an eloquent spokesman and convincingly stated his case. The result was the Balfour Declaration, which affirmed Britain's commitment to the establishment of a Jewish homeland.Weizmann went on to make significant contributions to both microbiology and politics. In 1920, he began a long tenure as President of the World Zionist Organization. In the years that followed, he campaigned with great zeal. In 1948, when the United States was going to reverse its decision to support the independent state of Israel, Weizmann used his considerable negotiating skills to convince President Truman that the United States should affirm their support for the new country, leading to the founding of Israel. In 1949, he was elected the first president of Israel.From microbiologist to President, Weizmann illustrates not only the persistence necessary in both research and politics, but the strange and interesting ways research and politics interact. What further developments will the products of biotechnical research inspire?www.accessexcellence.org/LC/SS/ferm_background.php---------------------- Skyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 10:45:08 GMT -5
Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium acetobutylicum, included in the genus Clostridium, is a commercially valuable bacterium. It is sometimes called the "Weizmann Organism", after Chaim Weizmann, who in 1916 helped discover how C. acetobutylicum culture could be used to produce acetone, butanol, and ethanol from starch using the ABE process (Acetone Butanol Ethanol process) for industrial purposes such as gunpowder and Cordite (using acetone) production. The A.B.E. process was an industry standard until the late 1940s, when low oil costs drove more-efficient processes based on hydrocarbon cracking and petroleum distillation techniques. C. acetobutylicum also produces acetic acid (vinegar), butyric acid (a substance that smells like vomit), carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.Anaerobic fermentation using C. acetobutylicum recently regained marked interest for use in vehicle biofuel production as a gasoline and diesel fuel replacement. This is because butanol, as produced by a fibrous bed bioreactor utilizing recent biotechnology co-developed by Environmental Energy Inc. and Ohio State University, produces the alcohol butanol as its primary output. The patented process using C. tyrobutyricum produces little acetone or ethanol, instead producing butyric acid and hydrogen, which is then pumped into another fibrous bed bioreactor where C. acetobutylicum converts the butyric acid into butanol, thus optimizing butanol production. The new process, then, obviates the A.B.E. process, making butanol production competitive with other biofuels with regard to both economics and energy production.
Pure butanol can be utilized in gasoline-powered cars without any modifications, producing similar mileage performance to gasoline but producing fewer NOx pollutants. If produced from a biomass source, there is no net carbon dioxide production.Unlike yeast, which can digest sugar only into alcohol and carbon dioxide, C. acetobutylicum and many other Clostridia can digest whey, sugar, starch, lignin[dubious – discuss], and other biomass directly into butanol, propionic acid, ether, and glycerin. Apart from the need for temperature control, the A.B.E. synthesis process is relatively simple. The products are however, completely miscible in water at the low concentrations produced by fermentation. In addition there is an azeotrope formed by both ethanol and water as well as Butanol and water. The azeotropes as well as the low concentrations of product lead to a relatively complicated separations process
* Butanol does not readily adsorb moisture (it is not hygroscopic), so is less affected by changes in the weather, unlike the combustion of pure ethanol, which requires engine and fuel system modifications.
* Butanol does not attack materials commonly used in vehicular internal combustion engines. * Biobutanol can also be used in the industrial paint and solvent industry to replace fossil butanol.
James Liao, a chemical engineer at the University of California, Los Angeles, developed a method to insert genes from Clostridium acetobutylicum which are responsible for production of butanol into the bacterium Escherichia coli. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_acetobutylicum=-============ www.bioc.rice.edu/~gbennett/biodegradation.htm================== Photo: www.sbi.uni-rostock.de/projects_sysmo.htmlfirmicute family: en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/188210filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/Microbes/clost.html"These enzymes allow the bacteria to break down large biological molecules and therefore have a large role in biodegradation, the carbon cycle, and pathogenicity.""Most Clostridia are saprophytes, including those that are pathogens. Those that are pathogenic tend to be opportunistic. A few are serious only because of the virulence of the toxins produced (as is the case with C. botulinum and C. tetani), and a small number of cells may produce sufficient toxin to cause clinical disease and death. Most species are obligate anaerobes, although some are falcultative (C. tertuim, C. histolyticum). They typically stain Gram-positive with the exception of a few which are Gram-negative. Many species can easily lose the Gram-reaction altogether. There are nearly 100 species identified. These are classed in several ways, the foremost being morphological and genetic differences. For example, typing may be based on the position of the endospore on the vegetative cell (ie; whether it is terminal or subterminal). Some are grouped together by their end products of fermentation, or by the enzymes they produce. The species C. botulinum contains strains that are not genetically similar, but they produce similar antigenic types of toxin and so are classed as one species. ""Clostridium prefers anaerobic soils and is probably the most common Gram positive organism found in such soils. Bacillus, a relative of Clostridium, is the aerobic Gram positive spore-forming counterpart."================= bacillus: filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/Microbes/bacillus.html2. TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION In the genus Bacillus, sporulation is not repressed by exposure to air. There is not more than one organism in a sporangial cell. The capsule of B. anthracis is unique and contains a polypeptide of D-glutamic acid. Motility occurs by flagella that are typically lateral. Metabolism is strictly respiratory, strictly fermentative, or both respiratory and fermentative. Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor in the respiratory metabolism; in some species nitrate can be used as an alternate electron acceptor and dentitrification occurs under oxygen limiting conditions.There are currently 48 described species in the genus Bacillus. There are two major groups within the genus Bacillus, divided between well characterized (Group I, 22 species) and poorly characterized (Group II, 26 species) species. More work is needed to establish those in Group II as distinct species. The endospores of Bacillus are among the most resistant biological structures known, and bacilli have been revived from viable spores that have been isolated from mesopotamia-era mud bricks that are over 4,000 years old. This genus includes Bacillus anthracis, pictured above left, which shows both stained cells and unstained spores contained within. It is the causative organism of the disease anthrax found in animals and, in some cases, humans. Several non-pathogenic species of Bacillus closely resemble B. anthracis, except on the basis of pathogenicity. Bacillus thuringiensis is one of four species that are pathogenic to insects. Toxins from this organism are associated with sporulation and the genes for the toxin have been inserted into plants to provide insecticide-resistance (see Transgenic Bt Crops). Most commonly these insect pathogens are applied directly to plant surfaces where they will serve as biological insecticides by killing target insects. Bacillus prefers aerobic soils and is probably the most common Gram positive organism found in such soils. Clostridium, a relative of Bacillus, is the anaerobic Gram positive spore-forming counterpart.The image to the left is an electron micrograph of a Bacillus sp. The noticeable swellings at the end of the rods are caused by the endospore. To the right is a vital stain under phase microcoscopy (1000X). The spores inside the yellow-stained cells can be seen as larger spherical structures that reflect light.filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/Microbes/bacillus.htmlor target humans? skyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 10:46:58 GMT -5
3. ISOLATION AND ECOLOGY Clostridia grow very well on CDC anaerobic blood agar (incubated in a GasPak jar at 37 C). Some other selective media include Prereduced Chopped Meat Glucose medium, BHI (brain-heart-infusion) medium, and McClung-Toabe egg-yolk agar (incubated in a Bio-Bag). The plugs to any tubes used for incubation must be clamped on or the amount of gas produced will cause them to explode off, and the influx of oxygen will kill the culture. The egg-yolk agar is selective for lecithinase activity, which is a major toxin produced by C. perfringens (the causative agent of gas gangrene). C. perfringens also produces butyric acid and cultures may smell like rancid butter. Because of their peritrichous flagella, colonies grown on agar will "swarm," or slowly migrate across the plate.filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/Microbes/clost.htmlskyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 11:04:08 GMT -5
Are Oligomers fromed from rubber(acetone)?
betcha..................... rubber genes............dimers homodimers heterodimers. Procyanidin Oligomers Selectively and Intensively Promote Proliferation of Mouse Hair Epithelial Cells In Vitro and Activate Hair Follicle Growth In VivoAbstract We have previously reported that proanthocyanidins extracted from grape seeds possess growth-promoting activity toward murine hair epithelial cells in vitro and stimulate anagen induction in hair cycle progression in vivo. This report constitutes a comparison of the growth-promoting activity of procyanidin oligomers and the target cells of procyanidins in the skin. Results show that procyanidin dimer and trimer exhibit higher growth-promoting activity than the monomer. The maximum growth-promoting activity for hair epithelial cells with procyanidin B-2, an epicatechin dimer, reached about 300% (30 muM) relative to controls (=100%) in a 5 d culture. Optimum concentration of procyanidin C-1, an epicatechin trimer, was lower than that of procyanidin B-2; the maximum growth-promoting activity of procyanidin C-1 was about 220% (3 muM). No other flavonoid compounds examined exhibit higher proliferative activities than the procyanidins. In skin constituent cells, only epithelial cells such as hair keratinocytes or epidermal keratinocytes respond to procyanidin oligomers. Topical application of 1% procyanidin oligomers on shaven C3H mice in the telogen phase led to significant hair regeneration [procyanidin B-2, 69.6% plusminus 21.8% (mean plusminus SD); procyanidin B-3, 80.9% plusminus 13.0%; procyanidin C-1, 78.3% plusminus 7.6%] on the basis of the shaven area; application of vehicle only led to regeneration of 41.7% (SD = 16.3%). In this paper, we demonstrate the hair-growing activity of procyanidin oligomers both in vitro and in vivo, and their potential for use as agents to induce hair growth. Keywords: cell culture, condensed tannin, hair growth, skin www.minoxidilplus.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=78grapes same freq of human skin? why grape juice works to pull out fibers from mouth? as well as wine?
===================== gp16 forms specific oligomers, rings, and side-by-side double rings, as judged by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and scanning transmission electron microscopy measurements. The single ring contains about eight monomers, and the rings have a diameter of about 8 nm with a central hole of about 2 nm. A DNA-binding helix-turn-helix motif close to the N terminus of gp16 is predicted. The oligomers do not bind to DNA, but following denaturation and renaturation in the presence of DNA, binding can be demonstrated by gel shift and filter binding assays. gp16 binds to double-stranded DNA but not single-stranded DNA, and appears to bind preferentially to a gene 16-containing DNA sequence. www.jbc.org/content/272/6/3495.fullOligomers the way in to hybridize the dna.......and.......... use of T4 phage............ gp16 oligomers: www.jbc.org/content/272/6/3495/F7.large.jpgskyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 11:28:35 GMT -5
The Small Terminase, gp16, of Bacteriophage T4 Is a Regulator of the DNA Packaging Motor* Tailed bacteriophages and herpes viruses use powerful molecular motors to translocate DNA into a preassembled prohead and compact the DNA to near crystalline density. T he phage T4 motor, a pentamer of 70-kDa large terminase, gp17, is the fastest and most powerful motor reported to date. gp17 has an ATPase activity that powers DNA translocation and a nuclease activity that cuts concatemeric DNA and generates the termini of viral genome. An 18-kDa small terminase, gp16, is also essential, but its role in DNA packaging is poorly understood. gp16 forms oligomers, most likely octamers, exhibits no enzymatic activities, but stimulates the gp17-ATPase activity, and inhibits the nuclease activity. Extensive mutational and biochemical analyses show that gp16 contains three domains, a central oligomerization domain, and N- and C-terminal domains that are essential for ATPase stimulation. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782041/ Once the N and C terminals are used as the central points, or broken into: ATPase is stimulatedDuring the late stages in the life cycle of tailed bacteriophages and herpes viruses, a metabolically highly active viral genome is disengaged from processes such as transcription and recombination and packaged into a viral capsid to near crystalline density (1, 2). In phage T4, a ∼171-kb 56-μm long DNA molecule is compacted within a 120 nm × 86 nm capsid shell (3). Many viruses use powerful molecular motors assembled at a special portal vertex of the icosahedral capsid to accomplish this task (4). The DNA is translocated through a channel formed by the dodecameric portal protein, utilizing ATP as an energy source (5). The phage T4 motor, packaging up to ∼2000 bp/s and having a power density of ∼5,000 kilowatts/m3, is the fastest and most powerful molecular motor reported to date (6). www.pnas.org/content/106/21/8507/F1.large.jpggp6? Snake venom? ?? www.jbc.org/content/277/38/35124.fullokay................ oligomers and snake venom? SUMMARY Purified phenylalanine transfer RNA (tRNA) from yeast has been degraded with pancreatic ribonuclease, and the fragments obtained have been separated and identified. The 3’-terminal nucleoside is cytidine, and the 5’4errninal dinucleotide is pGpCp. Fourteen minor nucleosides are present, including 7-methylguanosine, 2’-0-methylcytidine, and a nucleoside the identity of which is not established. The sequences involving some of the minor nucleosides, N2- dimethyl-GpCp, GpTp, and ApGp-dihydro-Up, are common to many other tRNAs. The largest oligonucleotide produced is an octanucleotide with the sequence GpGpGpApGpAp- GPCP. www.jbc.org/content/243/3/575.full.pdfThe 3’-terminal nucleoside is cytidine, and the 5’4errninal dinucleotide is pGpCp End group analysis of naturally terminated and UV lesion terminated T7 in vitro RNA 1. Department of Biophysics and Genetics, University of Colorado Medical Center Denver,CO 80262, USA 2. *Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, Michigan 48201 * Received October 4, 1976. Summary The 3′ terminal nucleosides of RNA transcribed in vitro by E. coli RNA polymerase from T7 DNA and UV irradiated T7 DNA were determined. The 3′ terminal nucleoside of naturally terminated (t1 termination site) RNA is cytidine. In the case of RNA terminated at UV lesions, it is cytidine in 70 per cent of the molecules and adenosine in the remaining 30 per cent. Cytidine trialcohols are labile in high concentrations of KOH and at high temperature and appear to convert to uridine. nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/3/12/3359.abstractskyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 13:17:05 GMT -5
Clostridium and fungus? It would be its connection to trichoderma reeseii...............and the termite............... Structural and functional analysis of three beta-glucosidases from bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans, fungus Trichoderma reesei and termite Neotermes koshunensis. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20682343======================== European species of Hypocrea Part I. The green-spored species www.studiesinmycology.org/cgi/content/full/63/1/1= insect stem cells from termite? skyship All strains produce acetate as an end product of fermentation.
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 13:32:06 GMT -5
Acetate vs acetone Structural conversion of neurotoxic amyloid-β1–42 oligomers to fibrils The amyloid-β1–42 (Aβ42) peptide rapidly aggregates to form oligomers, protofibils and fibrils en route to the deposition of amyloid plaques associated with Alzheimer's disease. We show that low-temperature and low-salt conditions can stabilize disc-shaped oligomers (pentamers) that are substantially more toxic to mouse cortical neurons than protofibrils and fibrils. We find that these neurotoxic oligomers do not have the β-sheet structure characteristic of fibrils. Rather, the oligomers are composed of loosely aggregated strands whose C termini are protected from solvent exchange and which have a turn conformation, placing Phe19 in contact with Leu34. On the basis of NMR spectroscopy, we show that the structural conversion of Aβ42 oligomers to fibrils involves the association of these loosely aggregated strands into β-sheets whose individual β-strands polymerize in a parallel, in-register orientation and are staggered at an intermonomer contact between Gln15 and Gly37. www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v17/n5/full/nsmb.1799.htmlCreate total chaos in environment, then bring in the order. With the Artificial genes. No more suffering, because they are all gone. Extinction of the unfit, the undesirables. Skyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 13:43:10 GMT -5
The mutual and the self-diffusion coefficients of the acetone-cellulose acetate system are determined by using established gravimetric measurements of the acetone evaporation rate. The process is studied as a one-dimensional numerical experiment utilizing the Galerkin finite element method. The numerical technique provides simultaneous solution of the model equations and yields by comparison with gravimetric data the diffusion coefficients of acetone in cellulose acetate for a wide range of temperatures and compositions. The estimated diffusion coefficients based on free volume theory are in satisfactory agreement with the available experimental data. It is believed that this method can be applied to other systems of interest. pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie990141dIt is generally held that radicals form and participate in heterogeneous photocatalytic processes on oxide surfaces, although understanding the mechanistic origins and fates of such species is difficult. In this study, photodesorption and thermal desorption techniques show that acetone is converted into acetate on the surface of TiO2(110) in a two-step process that involves, first, a thermal reaction between acetone and coadsorbed oxygen to make a surface acetone−oxygen complex, followed second by a photocatalytic reaction that ejects a methyl radical from the surface and converts the acetone−oxygen complex into acetate. Designation of the photodesorption species to methyl radicals was confirmed using isotopically labeled acetone. The yield of photodesorbed methyl radicals correlates well with the amount of acetone depleted and with the yield of acetate left on the surface, both gauged using postirradiation temperature programmed desorption (TPD). The thermal reaction between adsorbed acetone and oxygen to form the acetone−oxygen complex exhibits an approximate activation barrier of about 10 kJ/mol. A prerequisite to this reaction is the presence of surface Ti3+ sites that enable O2 adsorption. Creation of these sites by vacuum reduction of the surface prior to acetone and oxygen coadsorption results in an initial spike in the acetone photooxidation rate, but replenishment of these sites by photolytic means (i.e., by trapping excited electrons at the surface) appears to be a slow step in a sustained reaction. Evidence in this study for the ejection of organic radicals from the surface during photooxidation catalysis on TiO2 provides support for mechanistic pathways that involve both adsorbed and nonadsorbed species. pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp0507546Synthesis of chlorinated telechelic oligomers. 2. Telomerization of allyl acetate with functional telogens pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ma00009a052skyship
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 14:18:12 GMT -5
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Post by skyship on Oct 2, 2010 14:32:40 GMT -5
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Post by aqt on Oct 4, 2010 17:24:05 GMT -5
I myself am very undesirable!! ;D Even though they try, we move forward....
aqt
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Post by Frederic on Jan 26, 2021 22:16:37 GMT -5
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